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I would like to chime in by noting that Rust's mature form is borne of a very specific scenario, which is the web browser, software so complex that the "zero-cost" element is more like "actually possible to optimize" in practice. And a great deal of that complexity is accidential in some form, a result of accreted layers.

And in that respect, it's not really the kind of software anyone needs to aspire to; aspiring to write programs simple enough that Zig will do the job is much more palatable.

I don't take issue with the "zero-cost" part -- Zig and C, like every low-level language, have that -- but with the non-abstraction-"abstraction" part, which is rather unique to C++ and Rust. Rust has become a modern take on C++, and I'm not sure it had to be that for the sake of safety; I think it became that because of what you said: it was designed to replace C++ in a certain application with certain requirements. It's probably an improvement over C++, but, having never been a big fan of C++, it's not what I want from a modern systems programming language. It seems to me that Rust tries to answer the question "how can we make C++ better?" while Zig tries to answer the question "how can we make systems programming better?"

Of course, Zig has an unfair advantage here in that it is not production-ready yet, and so it's not really "out there," and doesn't have to carry the burden of any real software (there's very little software that Rust carries, but it's still much more than Zig). I admit that when Rust was at that state I had the same hopes for Rust as I do now for Zig, so Zig might yet disappoint.

> I think -- and I could be wrong -- that Rust sacrifices more than it has to just to achieve that soundness, by also paying for "zero-cost abstractions," which, for my taste, is repeating C++'s biggest mistake, namely sacrificing complexity for the appearance of high-level abstraction that may look convincing when you read the finished code (perhaps more convincing in Rust than in C++), but falls apart when you try to change it.

The argument here seems to be that there is can be no real abstraction in low-level languages, so there's no point providing language features for abstraction. The premise seems clearly false to me, because even C has plenty of abstraction. Functions are abstractions. Private symbols are abstractions. Even local variables are abstractions (over the stack vs. registers).

People often argue that Rust is too complicated for its goal of memory safety. It's easy to say that, but it's a lot harder to list specific features that Rust has that shouldn't be there. In fact, as far as I'm concerned Rust is an exercise in minimal language design, as the development of Rust from 0.6-1.0 makes clear (features were being thrown out left and right). Most of the features that look like they're there solely to support "zero-cost abstractions"—traits, for example—are really needed to achieve memory safety too. For instance, Deref is central to the concept of smart pointers, and, without smart pointers, users would have to manually write Arc/Rc/Box in unsafe code every time they wanted to heap-allocate something.

> Language simplicity goes a long way, even as far as sound formal verification is concerned. For example, there are existing sound static analysis tools that can guarantee no UB for C -- but not the complete C++, AFAIK -- with relatively little effort. It's not yet clear to me whether Zig, with its comptime, is simple enough for that, though.

The most important static analyzers used in industry today are Clang's sanitizers, which work on both C and C++. The most important such sanitizers actually work at the LLVM level, which means they work on Rust as well [1]! The days of having to write a compiler frontend for static analysis are long gone. We have excellent shared compiler infrastructure that makes it easy to write instrumentation that targets many low-level languages at once. (Even in the world of C, this is necessary. Plain old C99 is an increasingly marginal language, because the real important code, such as Windows and Linux kernels, are written in compiler-specific dialects of C, which means that a static analysis tool that isn't integrated with some popular compiler infrastructure will have limited usefulness anyway.)

> It is my great interest in software correctness, together with my personal aesthetic preferences, that has made me dislike language complexity so much and made me a believer in "when in doubt -- leave it out."

Again: easy to say, harder to specify specific Rust features you think should be removed.

[1]: https://github.com/japaric/rust-san

> The argument here seems to be that there is can be no real abstraction in low-level languages, so there's no point providing language features for abstraction.

My argument is that low-level languages allow for low abstraction, i.e. there's little that they can abstract over, where by abstraction I mean hide internal implementation details in a way that when they change the consumer of the construct, or "abstraction", does not need to change; if it does, then the construct is not an abstraction. With "zero-cost abstraction," C++/Rust offer constructs that syntactically appear as if they were abstractions (e.g. static vs dynamic dispatch; subroutine vs. coroutine call), but in reality aren't. I am not aware of any other language (unless Ada has changed considerably since I last used it in the early '00s) that values this idea to such a great extent.

The things you mentioned are abstractions only in the sense that the user doesn't need to know how the compiler implements them; in that respect, every language construct, including `if` (e.g. in Java, not every if is compiled into a branch) is an abstraction. I speak of the language's ability to allow users to abstract, and in that regard all low-level languages provide for poor abstraction. Without a JIT, the caller needs to know the calling convention; without a tracing GC the caller needs to know how the memory pointed to by a returned value is to be deallocated. The question is how much you try to make sure that all this knowledge is implicit in the syntax.

> People often argue that Rust is too complicated for its goal of memory safety.

I didn't know people often say that. I said it, and I'm not at all sure that's the case. I think that Rust pays far too heavy a price in complexity. It's too heavy for my taste whether or not it's all necessary for sound memory safety, but if it isn't, all the more the shame.

> Most of the features that look like they're there solely to support "zero-cost abstractions"—traits, for example—are really needed to achieve memory safety too.

OK, so I'll take your word for it and not say that again.

> The most important static analyzers used in industry today are Clang's sanitizers

I'm talking about sound static analysis tools, like Trust-in-Soft, that can guarantee no UB in C code. I think that particular tool might support some subset of C++, but not all of it. The sanitizers you mention rely on concrete interpretation (aka "dynamic") and are, therefore, usually unsound. Sound static analysis requires abstract interpretation, of which type checking and type inference are special cases. Just as you can't make all of Rust's guarantees by running Rust's type-checker on LLVM bytecode, so too you cannot run today's most powerful sound static analysis tools -- that are already strong enough to absolutely guarantee no UB in C st little cost -- on LLVM bytecode; they require a higher-level language. Don't know about tomorrow's tools.

> Again: easy to say, harder to specify specific Rust features you think should be removed.

I accept your claim. In general, I don't like to isolate language features; it's the gestalt that matters, and it's possible that once Rust committed to sound memory safety everything else followed. But let me just ask: are macros absolutely essential?

> But let me just ask: are macros absolutely essential?

Yes, for two main reasons: (1) type-safe printf; (2) #[derive]. Nothing is "absolutely essential" in any Turing-complete language, of course, but printf comes pretty close. The only real alternative would have been to use the builder pattern for formatting like C++ does (i.e. the << operator), but nobody seriously proposed that as the aesthetics are really bad and setting formatting flags like precision is problematic. And without custom #[derive], you couldn't serialize types, which is pretty important in a modern language.

Note that these are both cases (maybe the primary cases) in which OCaml has built-in ad-hoc solutions that feel very un-"systemsy". In OCaml, format strings are built in to the language, as are functions like PartialEq and Debug, the latter of which are implemented via magic built-in functions that call private internal reflection APIs. There was a desire to do better in Rust, as it was felt that these are the ugliest parts of OCaml, and so macros were part of Rust from the very early days.

OK. I mean, personally I would swallow a lot of ugly special cases before adding macros, but it's certainly in line with other people's aesthetic preferences and Rust's "C++ spirit" of a low-level language with high-level language features. I can see the logic in saying that since we need lots of fancy mechanisms for sound safety anyway, what's one more gonna hurt?

BTW, Zig manages to do both things without macros and without any special cases in the compiler. TBF, Zig's approach was unfamiliar to me until I saw it in Zig, and it is Zig's "brilliant idea" (even if it had originated elsewhere), so it's OK if Rust simply didn't consider it; Rust certainly has its own brilliant idea.

> For example, there are existing sound static analysis tools that can guarantee no UB for C -- but not the complete C++, AFAIK -- with relatively little effort.

The only static analysis tools that can guarantee anything about C are doomed to have plenty of false positives. They are much less used in practice than tools ASan & co which don't guarantee anything but have way fewer false positive, if any.

They have their use-case, but calling them “little effort” is disingenuous.

> The only static analysis tools that can guarantee anything about C are doomed to have plenty of false positives.

That's where the effort comes in. Those false positives are removed by adding annotations or changing code.

> They have their use-case, but calling them “little effort” is disingenuous.

I said they require relatively little effort, because it's definitely less effort than a rewrite in Rust. This isn't hypothetical. >1MLOC programs in the industry today are checked in this way. If you have an existing large C program and decide that you need your program to have no UB, those sound static analysis tools are the most cost-effective way of doing that today.

> That's where the effort comes in. Those false positives are removed by adding annotations or changing code.

With the former you lose all guarantees and fall back to a safe/unsafe duality, with the latter you need to rethink how your code works to comply yo the analyzer's mindset: in the end it's pretty much like Rust, but in an ad-hoc way, much less ergonomic.

> I said they require relatively little effort, because it's definitely less effort than a rewrite in Rust.

This is a ridiculous way to save your argument. You are well aware that this is not what “relatively easy” means.

It is comparatively easier to deploy such tools than to rewrite a whole project in Rust, but the payoff is also lower in the long run (Rust offers more than zero-UB), so we might get to a point (when tooling[1] and hiring pool have reached a point where it becomes sustainable) where the latter option makes more sense for most people (unless C is mandatory, for portability reasons for instance).

[1]: I'm especially thinking about C2Rust here https://immunant.com/blog/2020/01/quake3/

> With the former you lose all guarantees and fall back to a safe/unsafe duality

This is simply not true. The annotations are checked. It's exactly like adding type annotations when inference fails.

> with the latter you need to rethink how your code works to comply yo the analyzer's mindset

No. I'm talking about adding something like a bounds check in a function entry.

> in the end it's pretty much like Rust, but in an ad-hoc way, much less ergonomic.

Except that it is cheaper than a rewrite in Rust, which is one of the several reasons why this is currently the preferred approach in industry segments that require certain correctness guarantees. I don't know if you know this, but Rust isn't exactly making big headways in the safety/security-critical software world, especially, though not only, in embedded (for a multitude of reasons). Those sound static analysis tools, on the other hand, are showing nice growth.

Also, even if Rust were more ergonomic than this, there are alternatives that I think will be more ergonomic than Rust. I.e. it's not enough to be better than C++; if you want to get the people currently using C/C++ you need to be better than C/C++ in a way that justifies the transition cost and better than the other alternatives.

> You are well aware that this is not what “relatively easy” means.

Relatively easy means easier than all or most other available options. Anyway, that's what I meant.

> but the payoff is also lower in the long run (Rust offers more than zero-UB)

Nobody knows about the long term payoff Rust gives you because few people have had sufficient long term experience with it. It could be large, small, nil, or negative. And there are other languages as well. Zig, when it's available, might well have a bigger payoff than Rust (that's my current guess), and in any event, few people in the low-level programming space who aren't currently using C++ are even thinking about, let alone considering, Rust. Not that anyone is thinking about Zig, but at least Zig is aiming at C shops as well.

Again, as someone who has been using formal methods for some years now, I can tell you that nothing is obvious in software correctness, and no one knows what the best way to achieve it is (although we do know some best practices, and we have some answers to more specific questions).

> so we might get to a point (when tooling[1] and hiring pool have reached a point where it becomes sustainable) where the latter option makes more sense for most people

You are assuming that Rust is the preferrable choice. I no longer think it will be. BTW, here's "C2Zig": https://youtu.be/wM8vz_UPTE0

> Except that it is cheaper than a rewrite in Rust, which is one of the several reasons why this is currently the preferred approach in industry segments that require certain correctness guarantees. I don't know if you know this, but Rust isn't exactly making big headways in the safety/security-critical software world, especially, though not only, in embedded (for a multitude of reasons). Those sound static analysis tools, on the other hand, are showing nice growth.

Rust is way too new for that obviously. And as I said, because tooling and hiring pool are not here yet, it would be a critical mistake to attempt such move at the moment.

For new projects however, Rust is a really interesting bet. (I was until recently working on a new medical robot, whose software was mostly Rust and the speed at which we got it working was really exciting!).

> in any event, few people in the low-level programming space who aren't currently using C++ are even thinking about, let alone considering, Rust.

That's not my experience. Not many are considering it for a lot of reasons (too new, not enough people mastering it, resistance to change etc.) But “thinking about” is another story ;).

> You are assuming that Rust is the preferrable choice

Zig isn't really a choice at this point. It might become it in a few years, but there still a long way to go.