First -- I think the person you quoted is just wrong, it's not a feature at all.
Google "cm! 5 inches" or "cm 5 inches", or even "5 inches to cm" or "5 inches cm" and you get exactly the same result in all cases. The exclamation point isn't a feature, it's irrelevant.
But to answer your question more broadly: basic search syntax is documented here [1]. But then everything else -- like calculator or conversion functionality or snippets -- just falls under the broader umbrella of Google trying to give you answers directly whenever possible, rather than just links. And that isn't documented, first, because it's changing/improving constantly, and second, there's just too many custom features like that for any consumer to ever keep track of, so what would even be the point?
[1] https://support.google.com/websearch/answer/2466433?hl=en