In your new example, Caterpillar pays state/local taxes for their sales to the US, corpirate taxes to the US, and no VAT to the EU. Liebherr pays state/local taxes for their sales to the US, corporate taxes to the EU, and no VAT to the EU. Where is the imbalance?
There's no export subsidy here, hidden or otherwise. Everyone is on a level playing field.
You could do the same exercise on US exports to EU vs. domestic production in the EU, and it'd likewise show that there are no artifical barriers to imports to the EU
> This lowers Liebherr’s export price by 19%.
No, it really doesn't. The export price is exactly at the level it would be if there were no VAT at all.
> Liebherr sells the bulldozer tax-free in the US.
Tax-free other than all the taxes they paid.