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For example, a carbon tax?

That definitely sounds like a no-brainer to me, unfortunately there's significant political resistance to even a fact-based debate on that one.

Do you mean a carbon dioxide tax?

Of course! I've never encountered any unintentional confusion when using the term "carbon tax." For more understanding of what is meant by the term, see for example http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tax

Does having additional children count as using more non-renewable resources, or is it providing more labor?

It provides more labor. Whether or not it uses more resources, and which resources, depends. But if you tax resources themselves, it doesn't matter.

I'd say tax non-renewable resources and externalities (e.g. CO2) most of all, for the same reason you tax liquor and cigarettes.

Both. But kids will be taxed on their resource consumption and, when they grow up, their labor.

If I buy gold and bury it in the back yard, try taxing that.